7 all conservation landscape of Nepal

Biodiversity conservation through Landscape-level approaches   

Introduction

The term landscape, ‘landschaft’ in German or ‘lantschap’ in Dutch, is used to refer to a

section of land which the eye can view. It is broad term helps to conserve from different

species to different ecosystem. The landscape approach is a framework for

making landscape-level conservation which was developed by WWF and IUCN.

Landscape ecology is the interdisciplinary science that can bridge the disciplines of

biology, geography, and social science in order to tackle the problem of environmental

degradation.

Forman and Godron (1986) defined a landscape as “a heterogeneous land area

composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems that is repeated in similar form

throughout.” There is consensus that size does not necessarily define a landscape, but

rather that it is a spatially heterogeneous area relevant to key conservation objectives.

For this analysis, a landscape can be defined as ‘a contiguous area, intermediate in size

between an “ecoregion” and a “site”, with a specific set of ecological, cultural, and

socio-economic characteristics distinct from its neighbors’. IUCN defines landscape as “a

geographical mosaic composed of interacting ecosystems resulting from the influence of

geological, topographical, soil, climatic, biotic and human interactions in a given area”.

The elevation of Nepal ranging from sea level (60m) to highest mountain (8848).

Because of altitudinal and climatic variances in short geographic distance, Nepal is

endowed with rich biodiversity resources. The country comprises only 0.1% of the

worlds land masses, but it harbors high share of biodiversity. A total of 118 ecosystems

have been identified in Nepal, with 75 vegetation types and 35 forest types

(HMGN/MFSC, 2002). Species richness among floral diversity comprises lichens 465

species (2.3 % of the global diversity), bryophytes 853 species (5.1%), and angiosperms

5,856 species (2.7%). Likewise, faunal diversity includes butterflies 640 species and

moths 2,253 species (together 2.6%), birds 852 species (9.3%) and mammals 181 species

(4.5%) (GoN/MFSC,2006). The country has established an impressive network of

protected areas (national parks, wildlife reserve, hunting reserve, conservation area,

and buffer zone) to safeguard her rich biodiversity resources. Over 19% of the land

masses of the country are occupied by the protected area network, including 3.45%

buffer zone.

Conservation initiatives:

The concept of landscape level conservation is not a new but different new scientific

ideas are arises for the conservation of biodiversity. Nepal's conservation history can be

tracked back from 1950. Conservation initiatives have been taken through establishing a

Rhino Sanctuary in Chitwan in 1956. The main objective of the Sanctuary was to protect

the one horned rhinoceros. The conservation efforts took momentum when the country

established extensive protected area system during 1970s. National Parks and Wildlife

Reserves were established during this decade. The objective of the protected areas was

to protect wildlife species, including endangered rhinoceros, tigers, and wild elephants.

During 80s, people-centered approach in protected area management was evolved.

Himalayan National Park Regulation promulgated in 1979 has made the provision of

incorporating local peoples' needs into national park's management goals. The

regulation allows access to fuel-wood, fodder and litter of protected areas to local

communities. Similarly, annual thatch grass harvesting provisions in all lowland National

Park and Wildlife Reserves was introduced to response traditional resource use right of

local people. During this period, the government also added conservation areas in

protected area network, which seeks higher people participation in conservation. The

Annapurna Conservation Area emphasizes people's participation in resource

management and utilization, and provides high priority to development, was initiated in

this period (Sharma1992). During 90s, the government introduced the policy of sharing

part of the protected areas revenue with adjoining communities by establishing buffer

zones. With this, the traditional species conservation approach has shifted towards

ecosystem based approach of biodiversity conservation. The concept of buffer zone in

and around protected areas was introduced in 1993 following the realization that

sustainable wildlife conservation is possible only by active participation of local people

(Maskey 2001). Fourth amendment was made on National Parks and Wildlife

Conservation Act 1973 and introduced the regulation of sharing up to 50% annual

income of protected areas with buffer zone communities. The government envisioned

conservation areas and buffer zone management regime aims at achieving effective

management of National Parks and reserves, while at the same time giving due regard

to the local communities (Sharma 2001). Nepal has been embarking towards landscape

approach to conservation in the new millennium. The landscape approach to

conservation includes the integration of conservation and sustainable use concept in

various interwoven land use systems across human and biodiversity landscape. It

advocates for conservation of biodiversity resources beyond protected areas and people

are considered as an integral component of an ecosystem. The conservation concepts

are shifted from smaller to wider range, finally landscape level conservation was arising

in 2000s. It helps to conserve species to ecosystem. Different trans-boundary concept

also arises with landscape level conservation.

Landscape approach conservation initiatives:

Nepal has to adopt landscape approach to biodiversity conservation for various reasons

(Bennett, 2001). Firstly, Nepal has a number of protected areas of outstanding value for

the protection of biodiversity at a global scale. Like, many other countries, however,

these areas are likely to be inadequate on their own to ensure the long-term

conservation of the flora and fauna that occurs within the country. The protected areas

system does not fully represent all components of biodiversity, and many known areas

of importance for the flora and fauna lie outside the reserve system. Secondly,

individual protected areas are often inadequate to meet the ecological requirements of

a number of species, particularly large sized animal species. Thirdly, substantial areas of

forest are still present outside the protected areas. Thus there is an existing basis (in

terms of natural resources) for landscape level approach that seeks to maintain

biodiversity within the productive landscape. Finally, most communities of people in

Nepal have a close dependence on the land and its natural resources for their survival.

Consequently, an approach that seeks to extend conservation beyond the reserve

system must recognize the place of human communities, and their aspirations and

impacts on the land. Landscape ecology is a discipline that explicitly recognizes the place

of people in the environment (Bennett, 2001. It seeks to develop solutions for land use

that take into account human impacts. Growing demand for land, water and natural resources and human-induced climate change put an increasing pressure on nature. There are different factor that play the negative role in biodiversity degradation and destruction, increasing human population

and increase the dependency on natural resource, overexploitation of species and illegal

harvesting of different species are the main cause of declining the species population. In

my point of views landscape level approaches is the best for conservation of

biodiversity. Over the past decades, the landscape approach has been put forward as a

possible decision support solution for several development issues (often referred to as

competing claims) that converge on a landscape level. It mainly focuses spatial patterns,

scale, and temporal /spatial relations of ecological processes. It may encompass a region

composed multiple ecosystem. Landscape ecology incorporates conservation and

human dimensions to create a sustainable and harmonized living environment. The

landscape can be viewed as a Complex jigsaw puzzle with many overlapping pieces,

representing areas where conflicts for land exist. In essence, landscape ecology is the

science of fitting together pieces that do not fit. It also focus is on building local capacity

to implement integrated conservation and development programs through the

participation of local communities and government sector agencies. In recent years,

protected area management has evolved from a species-based conservation approach

to a livelihoods-based landscape approach. The shift in the conservation paradigm has

been gradual, and has included acceptance of communities as an integral part of

national level conservation initiatives, together with integration of many global

conventions and directives. Scaling up conservation across larger landscapes, as

facilitated by most global conventions, involves cooperation at various levels.

Heterogeneity, or distinct spatial pattern, comprises the core research question in

landscape ecology. The main themes comprising landscape ecology include: the spatial

pattern or structure of landscape ranging from wilderness to cities. Spatial

heterogeneity refers non uniform distribution or occurrence of environmental variables

such as soil, elevation, vegetation, water depth, etc there are many example of patchy

distribution of habitat, they are forest, ponds, and island in an archipelago, wood in an

agricultural landscape or mountain ranges in a desert. In landscape, different types of

forest, cultivated land, pastures, woodland, lakes and various types of wetland

alternately create a mosaic that affect the distribution of species. Species are not

confined to a single habitat, rather the move between habitats or live in borders where

two habitat meet. Landscape can be categorized into different categories they are:

cultural landscape, in cultural landscape, conserve and maintenance of species from the

traditional practice. Maintenance of traditional practice felt in different landscape in

Europe and Asia where traditional patterns of farming, grazing and forestry are being

abounded. Regional landscape is the variety of habitat on a small scale is not enough to

maintain most species. It is the better approach would be to link all protected area in a

regional plan, involving corridors, in which larger habitat units could be created.

Landscape represents a wide range of biophysical, socio-cultural, and environmental

conditions. The size and quality of landscape patches and corridors affect ecological

processes, plant and animal abundance at population and community level. It is now widely recognized that size and shape of landscape patches influence biotic diversity, home range size and

shape, animal dispersal behavior and species abundance also play role in plant and animal survivorship, source and sink dynamic, rate of species invasion and edge habitat dynamic. Sacred natural sites are areas of land or water having special spiritual significance to

peoples and communities, which can encompass complete territories extensive landscapes and can also, be as small as a single rock. Landscapes with large elevation gradients are important not

only for protecting biodiversity but also for helping to make ecosystems resilient to global climate Change by providing venues for range shifts and for conserving species that are seasonal

migrants along gradients in elevation. Policy Framework for landscape level conservation:

Different policy and act are formulated for the conservation of biodiversity. National

Biodiversity Strategy 2002 and Nepal Biodiversity Implementation Plan 2006 reflect a

shift in Nepal's biodiversity conservation management paradigm towards a more

holistic, ecosystem – oriented approach to conservation and sustainable use. The Tenth

Five Year Plan (2003 – 2008) incorporates landscape approach to conservation and

sustainable use as a new strategic and operational direction. Similarly, the government

if Nepal, with the support of WWF Nepal has prepared Terai Arc Landscape Strategy

(2004 – 2014) and Terai Arc Landscape Implementation Plan in 2006.

For the conserving biodiversity resources at Landscape level, the government with the

support of various donor communities, including UNDP, GEF, WWF, and SNV has

implemented various programs across the country. Some of the landscape-level

initiatives in Nepal are given below. With the objective of promoting conservation and

sustainable use of natural resources outside of the protected areas and getting support

from UNDP, the government of Nepal successfully implemented buffer zone programme

in seven protected areas of the country between 1995 and 2006. Some landscape level

initiatives in Nepal are:

1. Terai Arc landscape:

The 49,500 km² Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) is situated in the foothills of the Himalayas

and proximate plains, and includes around 15 protected areas of Nepal and India. The Nepal part is distributed across 14 districts from Rautahat in the east to Kanchanpur in the west

and contains six protected areas. The TAL program was initiated in 2001 to manage the megafauna that lives along the Himalayan foothills as metapopulations, by linking 15

protected areas in southern Nepal and north-western India with habitat corridors to facilitate dispersal (Thapa et. al 2013). In this programme Bardia National Park and Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve,

with Dudhwa National Park, Katerniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary, Kishanpur Wildlife

Sanctuary, and Lagga Bagga Forest in India, form a cluster of core areas that could

harbor a metapopulation of the megafauna such as one-horned rhinoceros, Elephant

and Tiger. These species are often described as charismatic, and there is global concern

for their conservation. They therefore serve as umbrella species and enable promotion

of wider biodiversity conservation objectives at regional scale.

2. Kailash Sacred Landscape:

The 31,175 km² Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL) spreads across a vast region that includes

remote portions of the Tibet Autonomous Region of China and Humla, Bhajang, Darchula,

and Baitadi districts in northwestern areas of Nepal and India. KSL programme was initiated in 2010.

This area is historically, ecologically, and culturally interconnected; it is the source of

four of Asia’s most important rivers, Brahmaputra, Indus, Karnali, and Sutlej, and at

the heart of this landscape is the sacred Mt. Kailash, revered by millions of people in Asia.

The region and its people are highly vulnerable to climate change and environmental

degradation, as well as threats associated with ongoing globalization processes and

accelerating development.

3. Kangchenjunga landscape:

The landscape surrounding Mt Kangchenjunga (8,586m) spreads over diverse ecological

zones in eastern Nepal (Kangchenjunga conservation area), Darjeeling and Sikkim in

India, and extending to western Bhutan. The landscape encompasses an area of about 6,000 sq.km. The area is included in one of 34 global biodiversity hotspots: within a 100 km north-south stretch, the landscape contains tropical to alpine vegetation that serves as a habitat for many umbrella and

charismatic species including the snow leopard, red panda, taking, blue sheep, serow, Himalayan musk deer, Himalayan thar, tiger, and Asian elephant. There are 14 important protected areas scattered across the southern part of the complex.

4. Chitwan Annapurna landscape:

Chitwan Annapurna landscape (CHAL) is located in central Nepal, covering an area of 32,057 sq. km, with elevations ranging from 200 m to 8,091 m above sea level. CHAL experiences a range of

climates from subtropical in the lowlands to alpine in the high mountains and cold and dry in the

Trans Himalayan region. Divided into the Siwalik Hills, midhills, high mountains and high Himal, geology and climate vary considerably .The Chitwan Annapurna landscape (CHAL) known for its biodiversity, encompassing all or part of 19 districts with all or part of six protected areas. Protected areas are Chitwan National Park (CNP), a portion of Parsa Wildlife Reserve (PWR), Shivapuri Nagarjung National Park (SNNP), Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA), Manaslu Conservation Area (MCA), and a portion of Langtang National Park (LNP) and their Buffer Zone. Landscape is drained by eight major rivers (Kali Gandaki, Seti, Madi, Marsyangdi, Daraundi, Budi Gandaki,

Trishuli, Rapti) and their tributaries of the broader Gandaki River system.

5. Sacred Himalayan landscape:

The SHL covers an area of 39,021 sq.km, extends from the Langtang National Park in

central Nepal through India’s Kangchenjunga Complex to the Toorsa Strict Nature Reserve in western Bhutan. Within it lies variation in elevation – from the subtropical lowlands to

the highest peaks of Mount Everest – which creates a complex mosaic of biodiversity includes four

mountain peaks that exceed 8,000m in elevation. Over 80 mammal species are

known to occur in the SHL. These include several large, charismatic and focal species for

conservation, notably the Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia), Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens),

Musk Deer (Moschus chrysogaster), Tibetan Wolf (Canis lupus chanco), Blue Sheep

(Pseudois nayaur), Himalayan Thar (Hemitragus jemlahicus) and Clouded Leopard

(Neofelis nebulosa) also captures the alpine meadows and grasslands, the temperate

broadleaf and conifer forests of the eastern Himalaya.

6. Karnali Conservation Landscape (KCL):

The Karnali River originates near Mansarovar and Rokas lakes in the Tibetan Autonomous Region of

China and flows southwards to confluences with the Seti River draining the western area of the

catchment (202 km) and the Bheri River (268 km) draining the eastern catchment. The smaller

Mugu, Humla, Jumla, Tila, and Sinja rivers join the Karnali as it flows south through this remote

terrain. The Karnali River enters areas in the KCL include Shey Phoksundo National Park,

Rara National Park, Khaptad National Park, and the Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve. The

Karnali basin has 1,361 glaciers covering 174 km2 with estimated ice reserves of 128

km3 (WECS, 2011). These represent important water towers. The proposed Karnali

Conservation Landscape coincides with the Karnali river basin, to cover an area of

31,471.42 km2 in 18 districts (Table 24). The protected

The Karnali landscape has river corridors along the Seti, Bheri and Humla, Mugu Karnali,

Tila, and Sinja rivers, which facilitate free movement of wildlife from one protected area

to another. The land cover along these rivers includes natural forests, community

forests, and leasehold forests. The rivers also facilitate upstream downstream

movement of aquatic animals, especially migratory fishes.

7. Eastern Chure-Terai Complex (ECTC)

The Eastern Chure Terai Complex is the area of the confluence of several important

rivers of the Koshi basin. The rivers in this area drain into the Koshi. Conservation of this

area is important to protect the upper watersheds that regulate water flows into the

Eastern Chure-Terai Complex (ECTC) Geographic rationale of ECTC the Eastern Chure

Terai Complex is the area of the confluence of several important rivers of the Koshi

basin. The rivers in this area drain into the Koshi. Conservation of this area is important

to protect the upper watersheds that regulate water flows into the Koshi Tappu. The ECTC would be an eastern annex to the TAL. The Eastern Chure-Terai Complex has been proposed

as a conservation landscape. As part of the Chure and Siwalik region, this complex

would receive attention from the President’s Fund for Churia conservation. Its

objectives would be to: enhance hydrological processes and services by the Chure and

Bhabar zone in the Terai, restore, conserve and manage biodiversity in this region, and

protect the Bhabar zone and Terai, which are adversely and massively affected by

siltation, riverbank widening, and flooding by the river systems.

Issues and challenging of landscape –Level conservation approaches:

The main issues of landscape level conservation are unsustainable harvesting of timber

and other resources, medicinal herbs and hunting wildlife parts and other issues like

illegal movement of livestock. Different in management policies and practice in different

places. Difficulty in coordination between various stakeholders due to nature and scale

of landscape conservation programs. Inadequate institutional capacity, human

resources and skills to deliver diverse responsibilities. Landscape level conservation

much more complex and difficult than national park management. Due to poor

communication between local people and management committee, conservation of

biodiversity has not done properly. Programs are driven by conservation agencies and

involve less engagement of local people. Certain programs focused exclusively on

specific conservation goals are led by park and forestry officials in collaboration with

WWF and other conservation agencies. External rather than internal funding sources.

Programs under implementation depend heavily on outside funding. Sustainability of

such programs will be questionable if successful experiences have not been

institutionalized within the regular government structure and programs. Scientific

researchers are organized independently and often have duplication.

Conservation Challenges:

The biodiversity rich forests in this landscape have become increasingly degraded and

fragmented as a result of ever increasing population and their growing dependency on

forest resources. The immediate cause of deforestation and degradation is dependency

of local communities on forest resources for timber, firewood, non timber forest

products and agricultural land. Forest degradation and fragmentation in turn have

contributed to the loss of habitat connectivity for the flagship species. Habitat

fragmentation has the effect of reducing previously extensive mammal populations into

genetically isolated sub-populations, many of which now risk falling below the threshold

of population viability.

Summary: In recent time, biodiversity is degraded day by day due to over exploitation of

species and increase of human population. Different strategies are adopted for the

conservation of biodiversity like national park, conservation area, buffer zone

management and landscape level approach. Different transboundry concept, corridor

concept are highlighted for the conservation purpose. Landscape level conservation is

the best way for the sustainable conservation of endangered and vulnerable species

around the world.

In case of Nepal seven different types landscape are established among them some are

regional and some are transboundary level. To protect the country's rich biodiversity

resources, Nepal has taken various measures. The protected area management policy

and practice has been heading towards more of progressive and participatory

management system. Local people are placed in the center of the protected area

management system. In this front, various programs, like conservation area, buffer zone

and landscape level conservation have been implemented. The quality of wildlife habitat

at landscape level is getting improved on the one hand and on the other the livelihood

options for local communities are diversified.

Altitudinal change in short distance has given Nepal’s biodiversity richness and variety.

However, despite the unique biodiversity, Nepal faces formidable conservation

challenges such as deforestation, poverty, poaching and rapidly growing subsistence

human population, especially in the fringe areas. Apart from making strong commitment

to biodiversity conservation by signing various international treaties and agreements,

Nepal has also set aside over 18 percent of country's total land as protected areas. Some

landscape level conservation of Nepal and their conservation priority and priority action

are given below:

Landscape	Conservation priority	Priority actions
Terai Arc Landscape (TAL)	Tiger Conservation	Revise existing TAL Strategy and Action Plan 2004-2014 with an extension of the north boundary to include the northern flank of the Churia range
Sacred Himalayan Landscape (SHL)	Biodiversity and Cultural	Revise existing Strategy and Action Plan 2006-2016 with revision of boundary
Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape (CHAL)	River basin, Water Conservation, Upstream-downstream linkage Biodiversity conservation	Develop a Strategy and Implementation Plan focusing more on river basin management and maintaining upstream downstream linkages
Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL)	Biodiversity and Cultural Transboundary	Develop a Strategy and Implementation Plan
Kangchenjunga Landscape (KL)	Snow Leopard Conservation and Transboundary Ecosystem services, Cultural heritage	Develop a Strategy and Implementation Plan
Karnali Conservation Landscape (KCL) – Proposed Eastern Chure-Terai Complex (ECTC) – Proposed	Snow Leopard Conservation and Water Conservation Biodiversity, Water conservation, transboundry	Undertake a detailed study and declare as a conservation landscape Undertake a detailed study and declare as a conservation landscape

(Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation 2016)

The TAL, SHL, KL, and KSL contribute to both the conservation of biodiversity and the

recognition of unique cultural heritage such as the Tharu culture in TAL, Sherpa culture

in SHL, and Byasi sauka culture in KSL. However, approaches to conservation at the

landscape scale are still weak at the operational level, which is a major gap. The

coordination between sectors is inadequate, resulting in activities that are in conflict for

resource use, especially for land use, land allocation, and water use and extraction.

DNPWC, WWF, ICIMOD, NTNC, and IUCN have been active in landscape scale

conservation.

References:

Teja Tscharntke, Alexandra M. Klein, Andreas Kruess, Ingolf Steffan-Dewenter and

Carsten Thies.(2005) Landscape Perspectives on Agricultural Intensification and

Eiodiversity – Ecosystem Service Management. Ecology letter8:857-874

Bennett, A. F. (2001) Nepal Biodiversity Landscape Project. A report to UNDP

Nepal and HMG Nepal.

DNPWC / Government of Nepal, (2006) Forging Partnership in Promoting

Sustainable Livelihoods. Reflections on Achievements in Participatory Conservation

(1995 – 2006)

 GoN/MFSC, (2006) Nepal Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plan. Government

of Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Singhdurbar, Kathmandu.

HMGN/MFSC, (2002) National Biodiversity Strategy. His Majesty's Government of

Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation.

 Maskey, T.M. (2001) Biodiversity Conservation in Nepal with reference to protected

areas. Protected Area Management in South Asia. Proceedings of WCPA South Asia

Regional Workshop on Protected Area Management, Kathmandu, Nepal, pp. 114 – 127.